Operation OVERLORD

(Note: this article describes the planning of Operation OVERLORD. A discussion of the various battles in Normandy can found in separate articles of this website)

The Normandy invasion began when the first pathfinders landed on Norman soil on the night of 5-6 Jun, leading the way for three divisions of airborne troops (including with them the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion, fighting with the 6th British Airborne Division.) Early on the morning of 6 Jun 1944, six divisions came ashore, including the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade.

Allied Preparations

While a cross-channel attack had been discussed since 1942, and several alternate plans drawn up, Allied strategy revolved around landings in North Africa in late 1942, Sicily in Jul 1943, and various operations in Italy in 1943 and into 1944, when the Allies finally felt ready to commit to landing in France.

Planning began in earnest in Mar 1943 by British Lieutenant General Sir Frederick E. Morgan (who was appointed COSSAC - Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied Commander), whose plan was developed further beginning in Jan 1944 by the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), under the command of the Supreme Allied Commander, US General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was named to this post on 24 Dec 1943. Operational command of the armies going ashore would go to General Sir Bernard Law Montgomery, who had advised the Canadians in the UK on matters of training, had been involved in some preliminary planning of the Dieppe Raid, and who had commanded the 8th British Army (to whom the 1st Canadian Division, 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade belonged) in Sicily and later southern Italy.

The Normandy invasion would mark the first operation in which formations passed from control of the First Canadian Army to the Second British Army and vice versa. For the assault, 3rd Canadian Division would be under operational control of I British Corps. Canadian higher headquarters would come ashore after the beachhead had been expanded. Once 2nd British Army had established a firm foothold, First Canadian Army would breakout and advance from a secure bridgehead. During Exercise SPARTAN in Mar 1943, the First Canadian Army trained to do exactly that, with three Canadian divisions and three British divisions under command.

The short operating range of Allied fighters from UK airfields, as well as the geography of the French coast, limited the choice of landing area to either the Pas de Calais or the Normandy beaches. The need for a large port facility resulted in the innovative idea of bringing one across to Normandy rather than attempting to capture one. The artificial harbours, codenamed MULBERRY, were just one of the many logistical successes; others included PLUTO (Pipe Line Under the Ocean) through which vital supplies of gasoline were pumped into the bridgehead from England. Other technical innovations would be used directly on the beach, particularly the "funny" tanks; armoured vehicles adapted for special purposes. The Canadians made great use of the Duplex Drive (DD) tanks; regular Shermans fitted with collapsible canvas screens and propellers to allow them to swim to shore and provide immediate close support. Other vehicles were equipped to assist in the passage of obstacles and demolition of strongpoints and were used by Royal Engineers units of the British Army.

Allied intentions were masked through successful and complex deception plans and intelligence/counter-intelligence operations. Security was extremely tight and Allied soldiers entered the "sausage machine" several days in advance of the landings; these were sealed camps in which the soldiers waterproofed vehicles, received final briefings, and were cut off from contact with the outside world as a security precaution.

Objectives

• Establish a firm lodgement with all five assault divisions linked up by D+1 (one day after D-Day).

• Create a firm beachhead including the cities of Caen (to be captured on D-Day) and Cherbourg (with its permanent port facilities)

• Liberate Brittany, the Atlantic ports, and advance on a line from Le Havre to Le Mans to Tours by D+40.

• Reach the line of the Seine by D+90.

Allied Invasion Plan

The invasion of Normandy was the largest amphibious assault in history; as such, it is quite possible the most complex military plan ever devised, and in fact there was not one single plan, but many, covering different phases of the assault. Multiple headquarters in the chain of command had varying responsibilities; the chain of command as far as the Canadians were concerned was:

• SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force) - under command of the Supreme Commander, US General Dwight D. Eisenhower

• 21st Army Group - under command of British General Bernard Law Montgomery, appointed overall Allied ground commander

• 2nd British Army - Canadian soldiers in the assault phase were subordinated to the British until enough room in the bridgehead allowed for Canadian headquarters (First Canadian Army and II Canadian Corps) to become operational

• I British Corps

During 1943, the plan for OVERLORD was developed and a detailed "Initial Joint Plan" emerged on 1 Feb 1944. Operation NEPTUNE would be the assault phase, in which the goal was "to secure a lodgement on the Continent from which further offensive operations can be developed." OVERLORD was itself was part of a larger strategic plan "designed to bring about the total defeat of Germany by means of heavy and concentrated assaults upon German-occupied Europe from the United Kingdom, the Mediterranean, and (the Soviet Union)." Normandy was selected as the target for several reasons;

• suitability and number of beaches for military landings

• shelter from prevailing westerly winds

• within range of friendly aircraft operating from the United Kingdom

• suitability for maintenance of a large invading force

On the western (right) flank, the 1st US Army would capture bridgeheads on the eastern shore of the Cotentin Peninsula; on the east (left), the 2nd British Army would secure a bridgehead encompassing Port-en-Bessin, Bayeux, the communications centre of Caen, and Cabourg.

The US 1st Army was tasked to capture the port at Cherbourg as fast as possible after the intial landings, then develop operations in the direction of St. Lo, in line with the British 2nd Army to their left. The British 2nd Army was simultaneously tasked with protecting the US flank as they captured Cherbourg, and in advancing on a line south of the St.Lo - Caen line, building a bridgehead south-east of Caen and securing airfields for Allied use.

The Initial Joint Plan recognized the necessity of building up forces in the bridgehead faster than the Germans could build opposition forces - another reason why capturing the port at Cherbourg was seen as a priority. By the end of D-Day, the plan called for two British, 1 Canadian and two US divisions to be ashore with 1/3 of a British and 1/3 of an American division offshore to follow up. By D+3 it was anticipated 7 divisions would be ashore, and by D+6 9 and 2/3 divisions (in addition to 5 British and Canadian armoured brigades/US equivalents). By D+20, some 24 divisions were scheduled to be ashore.

Timing

Original plans for the invasion had focused on a narrow landing zone from Grandcamp to Courseulles; extra beaches were added between Courseulles and the Orne estuary, as well as on the Cotentin Peninsula itself. The original target date of May 1944 had thus to be postponed to Jun 1944 to allow for production and procurement of additional landing craft.

The specific day of the assault was dependent on several factors:

• a full moon was required to provide light for the Airborne forces, who would be jumping at night so as to secure objectives before the seaborne landings commenced

• beach obstacles would be less effective if the waters were at half tide

• naval forces wished to operate at first light, bombarding German defences before H-Hour and thus requiring daylight to pinpoint targets - this meant that for the seaborne forces to be operating at dawn, half tide would have to be at that time

The first day in June in which all these factors were met was 5 Jun 1944, with the 6th and 7th also possibilities in the event of poor weather preventing either the airborne or seaborne forces from operating).

Naval Plans

Getting the forces to Normandy was a complex issue for the naval services; an outline was drafted by 15 Feb 1944, a detailed Naval Plan on 28 Feb, and a provisional set of detailed Naval Orders was issued on 2 Apr 1944. By 15 Apr, the forces called for by the planning were confirmed as participating - no less then six battleships, two monitors, 22 cruisers, 93 destroyers, 15 sloops, 26 escort destroyers, 27 frigates, 71 corvettes, and large numbers of smaller ships including all the landing craft that would take men, tanks and equipment to shore. All in all, this would be, as is often pointed out, the largest armada of naval vessels in the world's history. According to the Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War:

An Admiralty computation is that the total number of ships and vessels of all types finally involved in all phases of the operation (assault, follow-up, build-up, and administration) was 7,016.

By way of comparison, the famous Spanish Armada of 1588 consisted of only 122 ships.

Order of Battle for Assault Phase

Naval¹

• Western Naval Task Force - Comprising two Assault and one Follow-Up

Forces, working with 1st US Army.

• • Assault Force "U" - operating from Tor Bay, Brixham, Dartmouth, and Salcome - to assault Utah Beach.

  • Assault Force "O" - operating from Weymouth, Portland, and Poole - to assault Omaha Beach.

  • Follow Up Force "B" - operating from Plymouth, Falmouth, Helford River, and Fowey - to follow up in the US area.

• Eastern Naval Task Force - Comprising three Assault and one Follow-Up

Forces, working with 2nd British Army.

• • Assault Force "G" - operating from Southampton, the Solent, and Spithead - to assault Gold Beach.

  • Assault Force "J" - operating from Southampton, the Solent, and Spithead - to assault Juno Beach.

  • Assault Force "S" - operating from Portsmouth, Spithead, Newhaven and Shoreham - to assault Sword Beach.

  • Follow Up Force "L" - operating from the Nore (Thames Estuary) and Harwich - to follow up in the British area.

Land

• 1st US Army

  • VII US Corps

    • 4th US Infantry Division

    • 82d US Airborne Division

    • 101st US Airborne Division

  • V US Corps

    • 1st US Infantry Division

    • 29th US Infantry Division

    • Four Ranger Battalions

• 2nd British Army

  • I Corps

    • 3rd Canadian Infantry Division (2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade attached)

    • 3rd British Division

    • 1st Special Service Brigade

    • 4th S.S. Brigade

    • 6th Airborne Division (including 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion)

  • XXX Corps

    • 50th British Division

  • Army Troops

    • 1 Assault Brigade R.E.

    • 30 Armoured Brigade (Flail)

Air

• Strategic Air Forces - under direction of General Eisenhower.

  • 2nd British Tactical Air Force

  • 9th US Tactical Air Force

The land forces deployed as follows, roughly east to west:

• British 6th Airborne Division, comprising 8th and 9th Parachute Battalions of 3rd Parachute Brigade and the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion, delivered by parachute and glider to the east of the River Orne to protect the left flank of the invasion.

• 1 Special Service Brigade comprising No.3, No.4, No.6 and British No. 45 (Royal Marine) Commandos landed by sea at Ouistreham in Queen Red sector (leftmost), augemented by 1 Troop and 8 Troop (both French) of No.10 (Inter-Allied) Commando.

• British 3rd Infantry Division and the 27th Armoured Brigade on Sword Beach, from Ouistreham to Lion-sur-Mer.

• No.41 (Royal Marine) Commando, landed on the far right of Sword Beach.

• 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade and No.48 (Royal Marine) Commando on Juno Beach, from Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer to La Rivière-Saint-Sauveur.

• No.46 (Royal Marine) Commando at Juno Beach to scale cliffs on the left side of the Orne River estuary and destroy a battery. (Actually landed on D+1).

• British 50th Division and 8th Armoured Brigade on Gold Beach, from La Rivière to Arromanches.

• No.47 (Royal Marine) Commando on the right flank of Gold beach.

• US 1st Infantry Division and US 29th Infantry Division on Omaha Beach, from Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes to Vierville-sur-Mer.

• 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions at Pointe du Hoc. (The 5th actually diverted to Omaha Beach).

• US 4th Infantry Division on Utah Beach, near Pouppeville and La Madeleine.

• US 101st Airborne Division delivered by parachute near Vierville to support Utah Beach landings.

• US 82nd Airborne Division delivered by parachute near Sainte-Mère-Église, to protect the right flank of the invasion.

German Defences

The Normandy defenses were under the command of the German LXXXIV Korps, itself part of the German 7th Army. Dispositions in the Allied landing area were as follows, roughly from east to west.

• German 21st Panzer Division: a veteran armoured division, rearming in the Caen region and partially equipped with French-made light tanks. This formed part of the mobile reserve.

  • 22nd Panzer Regiment

  • 200th Sturmgeschütz Battalion

  • 125th Panzergrenadier Regiment

  • 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment

• German 716th Static Infantry Division: a coastal defence division with subunits in the Omaha, Gold, Sword and Juno landing areas.

  • 441 Ost Battalion

  • 726th Grenadier Regiment

  • 736th Grenadier Regiment.

• German 352nd Infantry Division: a regular infantry division, defending the city of St. Lo and the beaches in the Omaha sector.

  • 914th Grenadier Regiment

  • 915th Grenadier Regiment

  • 916th Grenadier Regiment

• German 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment: a parachute regiment of the 2nd Parachute Division, tasked with defending the city of Carentan.

• German 91st Air Landing Division: an air transportable division in name located on the Cotentin Peninsula, including US airborne landing zones.

  • 1057th Infantry Regiment

  • 1058th Infantry Regiment

• German 709th Static Infantry Division: Coastal defence division tasked with defending the Cherbourg Coast of the Cotentin Peninsula, including the Utah Beach sector.

  • 729th Grenadier Regiment

  • 739th Grenadier Regiment

  • 919th Grenadier Regiment]

• German 243rd Static Infantry Division: a coastal defence division protecting the western coast of the Cotentin Peninsula.

  • 920th Grenadier Regiment

  • 921st Grenadier Regiment

  • 922nd Grenadier Regiment

• German 30th Fast Infantry Brigade

Canadian Army Involvement

Planning

Canadian staff officers were employed at all levels in the chain of command, from SHAEF through 21st Army Group down to First Canadian Army.

A detailed discussion of Allied, and Canadian, planning can be found in Stopping the Panzers (Marc Milner, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 2014 - ISBN 978-0-7006-2003-6).

Force Composition

After the dispatch of 1st Canadian Infantry Division to the Mediterranean in 1943 and the rebuilding of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division after Dieppe, largely from scratch, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division was selected for the assault role on the Canadian beach, code named JUNO. They would be supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade.

In addition, the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion formed part of the British 6th Airborne Division, which would play an instrumental role in securing and then protecting the left flank of the beachhead.

Execution

After a postponement due to weather, the invasion of Europe went forward on 6 June 1944, popularly known ever since as D-Day. A detailed discussion of the campaign starts in the article on the Battle of Normandy.